When Christians see the moral foundations of American culture crumble before our eyes, we have a tendency to panic or worry. As we watch the gradual deterioration, it’s good to get a historical reminder that Christians have dealt with these situations before. During the second and third centuries in the Roman Empire, Christians were a minority and the government did not always treat them fairly ”average citizens were quite immoral and didn’t know much about (or care to know much about) Christian doctrine, and Christians themselves were generally misunderstood and disliked. Minus the intense physical persecution, the situation in America is fairly similar.
It was during this time of intense suspicion and marginalization that Tertullian, a Christian apologist who lived in the Roman Empire around the turn of the second century, began to write. He was born in North Africa, studied in Rome to be a lawyer, and then moved back to North Africa. When he was around forty years old, he began to follow Christ; he also became a presbyter and prolific author. Sadly, he did join the ascetic and “charismatic” Montanist sect later in his life, but many of his traditional writings have been a great blessing to the Western church. Cyprian, Augustine, Calvin, and Luther all benefited from his work. B. B. Warfield even said that Tertullian “rendered a service to the Church which it is no exaggeration to call inestimable” (see The Works of Benjamin B. Warfield: Studies in Tertullian and Augustine, vol. 4 [Bellingham, WA: Logos Bible Software, 2008], 4).
One of the most helpful works of Tertullian’s pen is The Apology, which he wrote around AD 200. Tertullian addressed this work to the rulers of the Roman Empire to demonstrate that they, while calling themselves just, were acting unjustly toward Christians. Although ancient, there are many parallels between our ancient Roman brothers and sisters and our own contemporary situation. Tertullian has a few helpful points on defending and living the faith “once for all delivered to the saints” in an increasingly unfriendly culture, interacting with Roman philosophers, lawyers, and historians to make his case. Sometimes he uses these Roman sources in a positive way, showing how Christians are in line with certain Roman customs, morals, and beliefs; other times, he cites them in ways that show their inconsistencies (cf. Paul in Acts 17:28).
Tertullian opens The Apology by laying out his case before the Roman rulers: “Your hatred [of] the name Christian is unjust.” The rulers detested the Christians, but knew almost nothing of who they were or what they believed. How can it be just or fair to call people “mad” and punish them without knowing their beliefs and practices? The rulers “hate us unrighteously while they continue in ignorance.” Even criminals in society were treated better than Christians ”they were permitted to hire defense attorneys while Christians were not. Christians were tortured if they confessed Christ; common criminals were not tortured and only had to confess their crimes. To be fair, plenty of rumors were circulating at the time The Apology was written: it was said that Christians killed and ate children, practiced incest, utilized pimps, and practiced wicked deeds in secret. Tertullian begged the Roman rulers to show evidence of these rumors, quoting a Roman proverb: “Among all evils, none flies so fast as rumor!” In an appeal to natural law, he explained that while the rumors had spread, time had not proved any of them to be true. He asked the rulers if they could prove that Christians committed the crimes of which they were accused; if not, then they were not acting as fair civil servants of the state, but rather as tyrannical dictators who were defying old Roman law.
Tertullian went on to explain how Christians were not criminals but actually good citizens, obedient to Roman laws. Christian women were modest and did not practice prostitution; marriage between men and women was honored in a way that the old Roman laws would approve: “The Christian husband has nothing to do with any but his own wife.” In fact, Tertullian argued, Christian morality was closer to old Roman law than the non-Christian morality of the day! Tertullian also gave testimonies of people who used to live immoral lives but began to live morally after becoming Christians.
Tertullian spent considerable time refuting two charges against Christians (both of which were considered treasonous): first, Christians did not worship the Greco-Roman gods; and second, they did not offer sacrifices to the emperor. He pointedly said, “We do not worship your gods because we know that there are no such beings.” Rather than being immediately punished for this, Christians should be permitted to offer a defense for this to the Roman leaders. Saturn, for example, “did not spare his own children” and people sacrificed their children to him. Much blood was willingly shed in the name of Jupiter, so why were Christians condemned, Tertullian asked, for worshiping a donkey-like figure (a rumor) when the state religion upheld gods who whose behavior and demands were far more questionable? According to ancient writers, Saturn wasn’t even a god but a mortal man. And if he had children, how could they be gods? It makes no sense for us, Tertullian said, to call these “gods” since they came from man. Furthermore, history had proven that worship of these gods had not helped the Roman Empire one bit: “[The Roman Empire’s] greatness was not the result of their religion.” Some Roman citizens worshipped one god, while others worshipped another. “You despise, therefore, those [gods] whom you reject; for in your rejection of them, it is plain you have no dread of giving them offence.” If it was clear that the Roman gods were more immoral than the Christian God, hadn’t helped the Roman Empire, and possibly weren’t even gods at all, then why should Christians be condemned for not worshipping them? Why were Roman citizens granted religious liberty but not Christians? “We alone are prevented having a religion of our own.” In another section of The Apology, Tertullian discussed supernatural beings (demons and angels), arguing that if it were legal for Roman citizens to believe in supernatural beings, then Christians should also be permitted to believe in supernatural beings legally.
Speaking to the charge that Christians would not offer sacrifices to the emperor, Tertullian affirmed their respect and reverence for him: “We pray for security to the empire, for protection to the imperial house, for brave armies, a faithful senate, a virtuous people, the world at rest, whatever, as man or Caesar, an emperor would wish.” Of course, he wrote, Caesar is under the dominion and authority of God, so Christians cannot call Caesar “Lord” (as in “Supreme Majesty”), but they can call him “lord” (as in “Your Honor”).
He went on to argue that citizens of Rome were even more immoral and violent than their gods! The gladiator shows were loved because of their violence, and Roman culture of the day even knew of murders by drowning, freezing, starving, and feeding people to animals. How could Roman rulers hate Christians for their “immorality” if Roman gods and citizens were more immoral? In comparison to the violence of Roman religion and culture, Christianity condemned all such inhumanity. “We may not destroy even the fetus in the womb,” Tertullian explained. Roman rulers were acting unfairly because they allowed non-Christian citizens to be inhumane but condemned Christians for rumors of their inhumanity.
The Case for Christianity
Tertullian also wrote positively of Christian beliefs: Christians worship one invisible God, who created all things out of nothing; their God is great, powerful, and transcendent; and while in many ways he is incomprehensible, he is knowable because of who he has shown himself to be in creation. There is also “ampler and more authoritative knowledge” of God: “written revelation for the behoof [benefit] of everyone whose heart is set on seeking him, that seeking he may find, and finding believe, and believing, obey.”
He went on to explain the deity of Christ and briefly summarized his life, death, and resurrection, all of which were verifiable through witnesses. “We have set forth this origin of our sect and name, with this account of the founder of Christianity. Torn and bleeding under your tortures we cry out ‘We worship God through Christ.'” He clarified the tenets of the faith so that the rulers would no longer be ignorant of it.
The Christians served Roman society through their love for one another and their fellow Romans. They are “knit together as [a body] by a common religious profession,” and they love their neighbors and even their enemies. In addition, Christian worship is not cultish or secretive; Christian alms are not forced; breaking the bread is not cannibalism; rather, prayer, Scripture reading, and singing are the core of Christian worship. Tertullian defended Christians as a loving people who worship the true God and love others in a simple manner that is not bizarre but beautiful.
Tertullian closes the treatise by talking about Christians suffering for the Name. They don’t want to suffer, he said, but they willingly do suffer because they expect the resurrection and to become partakers in the fullness of God’s grace. “We conquer in dying; we go forth victorious at the very time we are subdued. The more oftener we are mown down by you, the more in number we grow; the blood of Christians is seed.” He ends with these words: “When we are condemned by you, we are acquitted by the Highest.”
Parallels to Today
There are quite a few themes we could discuss at length, but space prevents me from listing them all. However, I’d like to close with a few observations for further thought. First, there are some cultural parallels between then and now; many people have strange religious beliefs and practices, and many people live very immoral lives. Second, while people may say that they like the idea of pluralism, they generally don’t like a plurality that allows for the sort of exclusive claims that the historic Christian religion makes. The laws of the state are not always consistent and just.
Solid Christian living gives apologetics credibility. When we honor those in authority (even, and especially, those with whom we disagree), despise violence, and commend morality, we demonstrate an integrity that is honoring to Christ. If we would love our neighbor, then a good, careful understanding of culture and law will enable us to winsomely engage non-Christians. We need to be able to lovingly explain the truths of the faith to those who don’t know it, not self-righteously despise those still dead in their sins.
Most importantly, we need to be prepared for the possibility that even honorable and righteous conduct will not always result in the desirable outcome of “bringing many sons to glory.” Christ is both a stumbling block and foolishness to those who are perishing; and if it is enough for servants to be like their master, then we shouldn’t be surprised when we find ourselves stricken, smitten, and afflicted for the sake of the gospel. Brothers and sisters before us have faced similar ”indeed, worse ”cultural situations. Instead of giving in to panic, we can learn from those who have gone before us and ultimately remember that no enemy of Christ shall triumph over his church. As Tertullian said, “We go forth victorious at the very time we are subdued.”
Shane Lems (MDiv, Westminster Seminary California) is the former pastor and church planter of the United Reformed Church in Sunnyside, Washington. He is currently pastor of Covenant Presbyterian Church (OPC) in Hammond, Wisconsin. He blogs at <link>http://www.reformedreader.wordpress.com</link>.
